Life of Leonardo da Vinci, a Short Biography 1. The Return to Italy - the Mona Lisa disappeared from the Louvre Museum in 1911. SIMON: It's a truly horrific prospect. Articles from Britannica Encyclopedias for elementary and high school students. Leonardo did not seriously study Latin, the key language of traditional learning, until much later, when he acquired a working knowledge of it on his own. He had just gotten married to Melinda Gates on New Year's Day of that year and was in the middle of building his multi-million-dollar mega mansion, Xanadu 2.0. It may have been that the rather sophisticated spirit of Neoplatonism prevailing in the Florence of the Medici went against the grain of Leonardos experience-oriented mind and that the more strict, academic atmosphere of Milan attracted him. It then disappeared again until it was bought at a small U.S. auction house in 2005. Therell never be another painting that I shall sell for more than this painting tonight.. The auction house would not reveal the identity of the buyer or even the region from which they came. He also pulled together a list of artwork that he found it to be similar to. for the highest price sold. But it does have two anonymous sources, their faces hidden on camera, identified as high-ranking French government officials who had access to the Louvre's studies of the painting and to the French-Saudi negotiations. Knowingly or not? But we ended up contacting others who we thought might know the work well, too. TINDERA: That average of every expert opinion worked out to about $130 million. Please select which sections you would like to print: Director, Central Institute for the History of Art, Munich, 194770. On November 20, 2014 at Sotheby's, the Crystal Bridges Museum of American Art bought her 1932 painting Jimson Weed/White Flower No. To him, it was just his collection of scientific observations and illustrations and writings, mostly focused on the study of water. At $28 million it's away from the room now and on the telephone at $28 million. Because the Louvre cannot comment on privately-owned works it has not displayed, the book can't be published, and at first, Cole says, the museum denied its existence. In total, Christies said, 27,000 people had seen the work on a pre-sale tour with stops in Hong Kong, London and San Francisco. The alleged vandalism attempt on Sunday left the painting's glass covered in cake frosting. Leonardo da Vinci Net Worth 2023: Money, Salary, Bio - CelebsMoney Freeman's was founded in 1805, and is actually America's oldest auction house. The rest are owned by museums around the world. Twenty-eight million. TINDERA: That's right. The piece is sold.. SIMON: The Codex is something that for most of the year, let's say you have to keep it under lock and key and out of the light. TINDERA: Simon shared with us his own process for how he estimated the fair market value in the appraisal he put together nearly 30 years ago. See a gallery of the world's most expensive paintings, Leonardo da Vincis Salvator Mundi sold for $400 million at Christies ($450.3m, including auction house premium), One of four versions of The Scream created by Munch and the only one that is privately owned. Portrait of a Man in Red Chalk Drawing by Leonardo da Vinci. TINDERA: I'm looking through a copy of whats now called the Codex Leicester, which I purchased online for about $30. PETERSON-WITHORN: Two were da Vinci drawings of draperies. Leonardo da Vinci Paintings & Artwork for Sale | Leonardo da Vinci Art The collector acquired it from Bouvier for $127m, who had in turn acquired it from Sothebys in a private sale in 2013 for about $50m less. He applied his creativity to every realm in which graphic representation is used: he was a painter, sculptor, architect, and engineer. Leonardo da Vinci painting sells for $450m at auction, smashing records But if our maximum value isn't $4 billion, then what is it? Thanks for joining me. That sold for $3.6 million at Sotheby's in New York in 1986. Nonetheless, the exhibition went a long way toward legitimising a shaky attribution. Mona Lisa is not only Leonardo da Vinci's most famous painting but the entire world's most famous painting. We asked Robert, if the Codex if it went up for sale again, could it compete with the Mundi's price? Lady with an Ermine by Leonardo da Vinci. In 1493 the clay model of the horse was put on public display on the occasion of the marriage of Emperor Maximilian to Bianca Maria Sforza, and preparations were made to cast the colossal figure, which was to be 16 feet (5 metres) high. Both sold at Sotheby's in Monaco on the same date in 1989. An exceptional case is graffiti artist David Choe, who accepted payment in shares for painting graffiti art in the headquarters of a fledgling Facebook. We felt that offering this painting within the context of our postwar and contemporary evening sale is a testament to the enduring relevance of this picture.. That he gave up both projects seems to indicate that he had deeper reasons for leaving Florence. So first, we looked to experts in the world of rare books and manuscripts to learn about the qualities that make a book valuable. A Look at the Wold's Most Valuable Paintings - artincontext.org The sale of Vincent van Gogh's Sunflowers was the first time a "modern" (in this case 1888) painting became the record holder, as opposed to the old master paintings which previously had dominated the market. TINDERA: That's right. This list is ordered by consumer price index inflation-adjusted value (in bold) in millions of United States dollars in 2021. According to some sources, the painting had been sold by Argentinian art collector Nelly Arrieta de Blaquier for $300 million,[9] but the price was not confirmed by any of the parties involved.[10]. If you would like to comment on this story or anything else you have seen on BBC Culture, head over to ourFacebookpage or message us onTwitter. Amid all of that the Codex went back to Christie's in 1994, where it was once again expected to bring $10 million. Antique Heliogravure on wove paper after t.. 620: 1893 Leonardo da Vinci Bust of an Old Man in Roman Costume print signed Est: $ 500 - $ 700 View sold prices Feb. 05, 2023 KCM Galleries Cape Coral, FL, US PETERSON-WITHORN: The person who ended up winning the auction was Armand Hammer, the 82-year-old multimillionaire chairman of oil and gas giant Occidental Petroleum. It stayed with the Earl of Leicesters estate until 1980, when it finally went up for auction. Last Supper, Italian Cenacolo, one of the most famous artworks in the world, painted by Leonardo da Vinci probably between 1495 and 1498 for the Dominican monastery Santa Maria delle Grazie in Milan. And it was a challenge. While dozens of manuscripts like the Codex have managed to survive the centuries intact, the Codex Leicester is the only da Vinci notebook that is still in private hands. I've worked as well as an art appraiser. Qi Baishi "Twelve Landscape Screens" (1925): $148.7 million 7. But he went even beyond that. Guinness World Records lists Leonardo da Vinci's Mona Lisa as having the highest ever insurance value for a painting. Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) is one of the most intriguing personalities in the history of Western art. So, we reached out to Martin Kemp, who is another da Vinci scholar, and an Oxford University emeritus professor. Before this, the highest absolute price paid for a painting was 8.1 million (20.4 million in 2021 currency) paid by the J. Paul Getty Museum for Andrea Mantegna's Adoration of the Magi at Christie's in London on 18 April 1985. On the last telephone, 18 million. Exact price (even the currency of sale) is not known, with estimates from $250 million to $300 million, Within weeks after a private viewing in Vienna in September 2012, Rybolovlev agreed to pay $183.8 million via his dealer Bouvier. The Top 10 Most Expensive Paintings Ever Sold At Auctions 10. He's gone to extra lengths to make this work as a whole more accessible to the public. Contemporary art, Mould told the Guardian, is where all the big money is. And so, you've got the painting itself is you know, much more of a rare object. Yves Bouvier, a Swiss art dealer, bought the painting from the New York dealers for $83 million, reportedly on behalf of his client, a Russian oligarch named Dmitry Rybolovlev, though this is disputed by Mr Bouvier. This is a list of the highest known prices paid for paintings. All the Leonardo Da Vincis in the world: rated | Leonardo da Vinci However, weeks after the grand opening of his museum, where he planned to showcase the Codex and other art he had collected over the years, Hammer died at the age of 92. TINDERA: I'm Michela Tindera, and this is Priceless. The artwork alone garners thousands of visitors from around the world to the famous gallery it is placed in - the . A lost painting by Leonardo da Vinci may have been found in a Scottish farmhouse, reported The Daily Mail. [note 1] Where necessary, the price is first converted to dollars using the exchange rate at the time the painting was sold. Antoine Vitkine's film Saviour for Sale is most notable for some explosive additions about what might have happened behind the scenes at the Louvre. Pierre-Auguste Renoir "Bal du moulin de la Galette" (1876): $154.7 million 6. The triptych had probably been reassembled by the Italian collector Francesco De Simone Niquesa, but were resold to a person in the US before 2013, This is the small version of the painting; the large version is at the. In the film, the art historian Frank Zllner, who has compiled a catalogue raisonn of Leonardo's paintings, wryly calls the Salvator Mundi "a masterpiece by Dianne Modestini," who made it "more Leonardesque than Leonardo had done." He created something he called the Codescope, which was software built to help museum-goers actually read da Vinci's backwards scrawl. On July 12, 2011, $75M was equivalent to 53M. And that was the process. They brought it to Dianne Modestini, a highly respected restorer, who removed decades of grime and overpainting, and was the first to suspect it might be a true Leonardo. This means the Codex is certainly one of the world's most valuable pieces of art. As everyone who does not live in utter isolation knows, a painting of Christ known as the "Salvator Mundi" ("Savior of the World") by the Italian Renaissance artist Leonardo da Vinci was. French President Emmanuel Macron pictured in 2018 with the owner of the Leonardo, Crown Prince Mohammad bin Salman (Credit: Photo by Bandar Algaloud/Getty Images), "The Louvre is supported by the government, the ministry of culture and ultimately Macron," Cole tells BBC Culture. The film doesn't take a stand on the painting's attribution, but makes it clear that museums, dealers and potential buyers had millions to gain along with incalculable prestige by choosing to believe it is a true Leonardo. Two of his most important worksthe Battle of Anghiari and the Leda, neither of them completedhave survived only in copies. Corrections? The saleroom erupted in cheers and applause. He said that he would guess that if the Codex were to go up for auction again, the auction estimate for the item might be $150 million. Cole was the first to report, in March 2020, the existence of a 46-page booklet the Louvre prepared for publication but never released, which asserts that the piece is an authentic Leonardo. He told us via email that his guess would be, "over $100 million." And we're going to show you how we narrowed that range to settle on one number. The winning bidder would later be revealed to be Saudi Arabia's Prince. Unless new documentation surfaces (unlikely after all these centuries), or a new scientific method of authentication arrives (also tricky because the work has been so damaged), the mystery may prove eternal. TINDERA: Right. TINDERA: In his appraisal Simon selected five comparable works all from the Renaissance era. TINDERA: Okay, so to recap, when it sold in 1980, it was expected to sell for $10 million, but ended up going for half that. PETERSON-WITHORN: Yeah, and Gates loves books. We should note here that we did reach out to Christie's, as well as Bill Gates to ask if they had any comments on the value of the Codex today. PETERSON-WITHORN: So I thought this was super fascinating that you could actually consider a work of art as something that could not only hold value and appreciate in value, but could also be a business, generating income for its owner over time. His drawing of the Vitruvian Man (c. 1490) has also become a cultural icon. Using monthly averages gives slightly different numbers, most significantly for paintings sold early or late in a year with significant inflation. He also worked in the next-door workshop of artist Antonio del Pollaiuolo, a sculptor, painter, engraver, and goldsmith, who frequently worked with his brother, Piero. But, it makes up only about 0.1% of Gates' $134 billion fortune, which we estimated for the Forbes 400 this year. Since the museums rarely sell them, they are considered priceless. In New York last night, he said he had never doubted the piece would break records. The painting disappeared from 1763 until 1900, when it was bought by Sir Charles Robinson as a work by Bernardino Luini, a follower of Leonardo. Leonardo da Vinci was described as having a gracious but reserved personality and an elegant bearing. So it's difficult to get much better than someone who has actually appraised an item. From about 1483 to 1486, he worked on the altar painting The Virgin of the Rocks, a project that led to 10 years of litigation between the Confraternity of the Immaculate Conception, which commissioned it, and Leonardo; for uncertain purposes, this legal dispute led Leonardo to create another version of the work in about 1508. Bouviers mark-up led to Rybolovlevs criminal complaint in a Mongasque court, alleging a scheme for overcharging him. However, we should probably note that it seems unlikely that as the owner of the Codex, Gates would actually do this. PETERSON-WITHORN: After the auction, he told the press, I'm very happy with the price. Leonardo da Vinci was an artist and engineer who is best known for his paintings, notably the Mona Lisa (c. 150319) and the Last Supper (149598). She tells BBC Culture, "Since then, Dianne Modestini continued to work on it. In November 2017 Saudi crown prince Mohammed bin Salman paid $450 million for a da Vinci painting. And how does that help us come up with a number for today? MICHELA TINDERA: So its 1994, and were listening to an auction in a salesroom at Christie's in Manhattan. Also of note is the decorative ceiling painting (1498) he made for the Sala delle Asse in the Milan Castello Sforzesco. A jump to $400m. SIMON: This is the clipping that I had taken out of the New York Times in 1980, when it was to be auctioned when Armand Hammer bought it. Leonardo da Vinci paintings that is on public display in the Western Hemisphere. It came close. The image of Christ as The Saviour of the World was billed as The Last da Vinci at Christie's 2017 auction, where it sold for a record $450 million (342 million) to a proxy for bin Salman (yes, that bin Salman, whom the CIA found responsible for ordering the murder of the journalist Jamal Khashoggi). Here are 20 of Leonardo da Vinci's most famous paintings: Mona Lisa by Leonardo da Vinci. Rybolovlevs spokesman, Brian Cattell, told the Wall Street Journal the family hoped the sale will finally bring to an end a very painful chapter. I wana write a poem about it. So if Saudi Arabia decides that culture is going to be the way it opens up and the Salvator Mundi is going to be a key player in that strategy and the Louvre is offering to exhibit it, then all those things are tied up together.". The Lost Leonardo is now playing in the US and opens in the UK on 10 September. It is believed to have been compiled between 1506 and 1510. Before the auction opened, the 500-year-old Leonardo da Vinci painting was estimated to sell for $100 million. Please refer to the appropriate style manual or other sources if you have any questions. LONDON A tiny Leonardo da Vinci sketch sold on Thursday at Christie's for 8.9 million with fees, or about $12.2 million, a record price for a Leonardo drawing at auction . PETERSON-WITHORN: Given Simon's connections to the Salvator Mundi, and his experience running a gallery of Old Masters works, he seemed like an excellent source to speak with for this valuation. In fact, it was also noted in the Codexs 1994 auction catalogue written by late da Vinci scholar Carlo Pedretti, that the Mona Lisa is, "indeed a visual synthesis of Leonardo's scientific knowledge as summed up in the Codex.". Six-million five hundred thousand, seven million. Everyone spoke with the caveat that we could never really know what the Codex is worth unless it actually goes up for auction. In particular, Qi Baishi's Twelve Landscape Screens was sold for $140.8 million in 2017. In the days leading up the the sale, Christies produced a video of celebrities viewing the work, among them Leonardo DiCaprio and Patti Smith. It is Oil on wood and measures 168 x 130 cm (5 1/2 x 4 1/2 ft.). That's because da Vinci wrote it backwards, which is what he did for much of what he wrote. Two new documentaries delve into the ongoing saga of Leonardo da Vinci's Salvator Mundi in a moment when true art crime stories are at their peak, writes Caryn James. A handpicked selection of stories from BBC Future, Culture, Worklife and Travel, delivered to your inbox every Friday. At the same time, Bouvier was negotiating and eventually succeeded to buy the painting for $112 million from Ursula Ucicky, widow of, Some fear existed, that Portrait of Dr. Gachet had been cremated with the owner in 1996, but Gachet's portrait was privately resold to. He decided that the Codex's fair market value was $50 million. A major turning point came when the painting was controversially displayed as an authentic Leonardo at a 2011 exhibition at the National Gallery in London. ", Auction Records Fall at Phillipss Sale of Contemporary Masters, "Fernand Lger (18811955), Contraste de formes", "Warmer Response at Sotheby's 2nd Night of Auctions", "Hong Kong Billionaire Lau Sets Two Records in 24 Hours", Led by $66M Van Gogh, Sotheby's Impressionist and Modern Sale Robustly Kicks Off Season, "Willem de Kooning (19041997), Untitled XXV", "Wang Meng painting auction for $62 million", "A Petite $69 Million Picasso Leads Sotheby's Solid $189 Million Impressionist Sale in London", "Property from a Distinguished Private Collection Pablo Picasso Femme Au Bret Et La Robe Quadrille (Marie-Thrse Walter)", Getty breaks record with $65.1-million purchase of Manet's 'Spring', As Stocks Fall, Art Surges at a $315.8 Million Sale, Claude Monet's "Le Bassin aux nymphas" auction results, A Zao Wou-Ki painting sold for $65 million, breaking records for a work by an Asian artist, Zao Wou-Ki's "Juin-Octobre 1985" auction results, The Most Expensive Paintings ever sold list by theartwolf, Oeuvres d'art les plus dispendieuses au monde, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_most_expensive_paintings&oldid=1140779647, Private Collection, New York, United States, This page was last edited on 21 February 2023, at 19:17. In Verrocchios renowned workshop Leonardo received a multifaceted training that included painting and sculpture as well as the technical-mechanical arts. Joining me for this is Chase Peterson-Withorn, an editor on the Forbes wealth team. The documentary covers much of the same ground as The Lost Leonardo, but less stylishly, with too many stock establishing shots of cities. The disciples, devastated by Christ stating one of them would cause his death, convey their feelings dramatically through their body language. The figure more than doubles the existing record for an artwork sold at auction: a $179.4 million bid for a Picasso in 2015. That is still a question. The bidding then resumed: $353m, $355m. "And it is involved therefore in the politics around culture. MASSEY: Twenty-seven million. The Christie's sale itself was a highly staged drama, beginning with a marketing video that showed not the painting but the faces of observers most are ordinary people but one of them is Leonardo DiCaprio looking reverently at the image as if they were seeing Christ himself. He also worked in the next-door workshop of artist Antonio Pollaiuolo. Six million dollars, thank you. The Netflix series This Is a Robbery delves into the 1990 theft of masterworks including a Rembrandt from the Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum in Boston. What was Leonardo da Vincis personality like? His was the last name on the 1988 provenance list; painting came from "a private collection in Arizona". PETERSON-WITHORN: Exactly. On permanent display at the Louvre in Paris, the Mona Lisa was assessed at US$100 million on 14 December 1962. Our editors will review what youve submitted and determine whether to revise the article. Some of the most eye-opening commentary in both films isn't even about art. And then amid all of this, he buys this one-of-a-kind Leonardo da Vinci manuscript at a Christie's auction for $28 million. And my enjoyment in owning these wonderful works of art. In The Lost Leonardo, a grinning Bouvier says his exploits are just business as usual: "you buy low and you sell high." In contrast, there are currently only nine pre-1875 paintings among the listed top 89, and none created between 1635 and 1874. Then we look at the condition, and we base the condition on what's in our hands, and how you look at a book thats 150, 170 years old. But now the Salvator Mundi has become the poster boy for the volatile mix of money, power and geopolitics that defines the art world today. Thanks for having me. But we need a lot more information than that before we make our estimate. No one in the art world knows for sure where the painting is. TINDERA: Now the audience in the room doesnt know this, but a representative for Microsoft cofounder Bill Gates is bidding on the phone. DARREN WINSTON: Once we've decided that the book is worth looking at for its condition, for its provenance. This time, though, it sold for three times that in the battle we heard about at the beginning of the episode between Gates and the Italian bank. Simon's connection to the painting is that back in 2005, he and a colleague actually sort of rediscovered the painting, which was in terrible condition. The writings in his notebooks suggest that he may have been a vegetarian, and there is also some speculation that he may have been gay. When it sold in 1994, it was also expected to sell for $10 million, but ended up selling for three times that. Whoever cut it up would be pilloried forever. But uncertainty is key to the appeal of every version of the story, as Lewis tells BBC Culture: "Nobody knows if it is a Leonardo, so you too can play the game, you can do your own Da Vinci Code on the Salvator Mundi. A jump to $370. So, you know, it's something I've sort of been following for, you know, a good part of my life. After the sale, Pylkknen said the sale had been his ultimate privilege. Record private sales are believed to include $250m for a painting by Paul Czanne and $300m for a Paul Gauguin. Still, it was a record-breaking event. Top 10 most expensive works of art sold at auction - in pictures, Original reporting and incisive analysis, direct from the Guardian every morning, Moment Leonardo da Vinci's Salvator Mundi sells for record-breaking $400m - video, Salvator Mundi painting by Leonardo Da Vinci before and after restoration, Leonardo's Vitruvian Man can go to the Louvre, court rules, Leonardo and Raphael art swap marks end of France-Italy spat, Short of imagination: Germaine Greer scorns Leonardo da Vincis art, Leonardo da Vinci events marred by Italy and France row, Rare Leonardo da Vinci notebook to go on show at British Library, World's most expensive painting is authentic Leonardo, insists expert, Louvre Abu Dhabi postpones display of Leonardo's Salvator Mundi, Leonardo scholar challenges attribution of $450m painting, Leonardo's earliest surviving work? Its the last painting by Leonardo, the greatest of all Renaissance artists, and it had an appeal to collectors from all parts of the world., Every major scholar of Leonardos work accepts the picture and has for the past decade, he said, addressing questions over the paintings authenticity and condition, adding: Its not in flawless condition, its 500 years old and absolutely has the presence and condition of a true Leonardo.. In 2011, the National Gallery included it in the exhibition Leonardo da Vinci: Painter at the Court of Milan. Billionaires just live in a different world. It's now been determined that his painting is not, in fact, a da Vinci. I cannot say if he or she will want to be public.. What is Leonardo da Vinci best known for? It's on the last telephone at $28 million. So next, we decided to try some sources who not only know Old Masters works, but they know da Vinci really well. I'm going to show it all over the world.. Price excludes sales commission and other costs. He was also frequently consulted as a technical adviser in the fields of architecture, fortifications, and military matters, and he served as a hydraulic and mechanical engineer. Kenneth Griffin acquired it in 2004 from Wynn. (According to contemporary sources, Leonardo was commissioned to create three more pictures, but these works have since disappeared or were never done.) Additional audio credits: AP, CBS, GatesNotes-The Blog of Bill Gates. SIMON: And if you look at the illuminated manuscripts that are from, you know, missiles, and you know, these are Renaissance manuscripts, many of them have been broken apart. This Leonardo da Vinci's portrait paintings are of Ginevra de' Benci, who was a rather popular Florentine woman. He had an exceedingly inquisitive mind and made strenuous efforts to become erudite in languages, natural science, mathematics, philosophy, and history, among other subjects. Art Sales: Russian buyers inject confidence into Old Master market: Last edited on 21 February 2023, at 19:17, Pendant portraits of Maerten Soolmans and Oopjen Coppit, La Montagne Sainte-Victoire vue du bosquet du Chteau Noir, Portrait of an Artist (Pool with Two Figures), Portrait of a Young Man holding a Roundel, Triptych Inspired by the Oresteia of Aeschylus, Peasant Woman Against a Background of Wheat, Femme au bret et la robe quadrille (Marie-Thrse Walter), List of most expensive artworks by living artists, List of most expensive non-fungible tokens, List of most expensive books and manuscripts, Abu Dhabi Department of Culture & Tourism, For Founders to Decorators, Facebook Riches, Mystery Buyer of Work Attributed to Caravaggio Revealed, Caravaggio Painting Estimated at $170 M. Sold Privately Ahead of Auction in France, "El enigma detrs del Van Gogh que sali de la Argentina", "The Red Vineyard Painting at annaboch.com", "Anna Boch.com Impressionist, patron of many artists", "The Most Expensive Female Artists 2016 artnet News", "The Chinese Ink Paintings of Wang Shaofei Break the World Record", "Abu Dhabi to acquire Leonardo da Vinci's 'Salvator Mundi': Christie's", "A Leonardo Made a $450 Million Splash. The sale places Salvator Mundi as the highest-priced work sold privately or at auction, including Pablo Picassos 1955 Women of Algiers (Version O), sold for $179.4m, and Amedeo Modiglianis 1917-18 Reclining Nude, sold for $170.4m. Mona Lisa And pizza-Alvin Johnson.docx - Leonardo Da Vinci The final winning bid? She was universally considered to be the painter's sitter. We know quite a bit about Leonardo's life from a mini-biography by Giorgio Vasari, a Leonardo fanboy and the world's first art historian.Born a nobody, Leonardo was a charismatic and complicated man self confident and not, driven and not, distracted and not. But many experts on camera and elsewhere in the press think he leapt to an early conclusion. Leonardo da Vinci: Last Supper. One of two pastel versions; another two painted versions (and lithography) exist, all created by Munch. At $28 million. Fifty-fivefive-point-five million dollars to start it. Whereas Picasso and Warhol became wealthy men, van Gogh is known to have sold only one painting in his lifetime, The Red Vineyard, for 400 French francs (approximately $2,000 in 2018 dollars) in 1890, to the Belgian impressionist painter and heiress Anna Boch. The Secretes of Salvator Mundi by Leonardo da Vinci TINDERA: Ultimately, in his appraisal, which Simon submitted in December 1993.
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